Classes of main verbs

The class of verbs that function as main verbs in verb phrases can be divided into subclasses in different ways. Here we introduce two types of subclassification; the distinction between stative and dynamic verbs, and the classification of verbs in terms of transitivity. 

The distinction between stative and dynamic verbs is based on the meaning of a verb. Broadly speaking, verbs that denote a stable state of affairs (which may sometimes have relatively short duration) are referred to as stative verbs. This class of verbs includes verbs describing mental states (e.g. know, believe) and emotions (e.g. like, love, hate). Dynamic verbs are verbs that typically denote an activity which is controlled by an active 'doer' or agent. Examples include, among many others, verbs like run, move, work, play, and make. The distinction between stative and dynamic verbs is important for the possibility of forming verb phrases in the progressive aspect (sometimes referred to as the continuous form). Dynamic verbs occur in the progressive, whereas stative verbs do not:

(1) Bill is working very hard on his project application. (2) *Bill is knowing that his career depends on it.
      (the asterisk, as always, denotes an ungrammatical sentence)

For more on the use of the progressive in English see

• Simple and progressive forms

The classification of verbs into transitive, intransitive, or copular requires some background knowledge in basic clause structure. Follow the link below to get basic information about clauses and their parts.

• Clauses and their parts

Verbs may be classified in terms of what other elements they require in the same clause. A verb like destroy requires the presence of a grammatical subject denoting either a 'doer' or agent or some inanimate cause of destruction, as well as a direct object denoting the target of destruction, as in the following example.

(3) Bill/The storm destroyed our house.

Verbs that require an object are called transitive verbs. Some transitive verbs can, and normally do, occur with two objects. The prime example is the verb give, which in its most frequent use require both an object that denotes the recipient of a thing (the indirect object) and the thing itself (the direct object), as in the following example.

Bill	gave	his mother	a new car.
Subject	Predicate Verb	Indirect object	Direct object

To distinguish verbs like give from verbs like destroy, the former are referred to as ditransitive verbs, whereas the latter are referred to either as transitive or, to emphasise the fact that they require only one object, monotransitive. A third type of transitive verbs require both an object and a further element, called an object predicative, ascribing a property to whatever the object denotes. A prime example is the most common use of consider, as in the following example:

Everybody	considers	my sister	a bit odd.
Subject	Predicate Verb	Direct object	Object predicative

Verbs like consider, which take both an object and an object predicative, are referred to as complex-transitive verbs. For more information on predicatives, see:

• Clauses and their parts/Predicatives

Copular verbs are similar to transitive verbs in that they require an additional element besides the subject. This element, called a predicative, is like an object in occurring after the verb. However, predicatives differ from objects in significant ways. By way of illustration, consider the following pair of sentences:

Bill	hired	a good lawyer.
Subject	Predicate Verb	Direct object
Bill	is	a good lawyer
Subject	Predicate Verb	Predicative

In the first example, the noun phrase a good lawyer functions as a direct object, whereas in the second one the same noun phrase functions as a predicative. Note the following differences:

1. The direct object refers to an individual which is distinct from the subject, whereas the predicative does not really refer to an individual at all. Instead, the predicative is used to characterise the subject.
2. There is an alternative way of expressing the message in the first sentence, namely with a passive sentence, whereas the second sentence has no passive alternative:

(4) A good lawyer was hired by Bill.

(5) *A good lawyer was been by Bill

Predicatives, then are different from objects, but are still required by some verbs, namely the copular verbs. Copular verbs are typically low in informational content, and refer mostly to states of being or becoming. In the following examples the verbs in boldface are copular verbs:

(6) Bill seems angry. (7) Bill became a lawyer. (8) The liquid turned green.

For more information on predicatives, see:

• Clauses and their parts/Predicatives

Verbs that do not require an object are called intransitive verbs. Typical examples include verbs like arrive, die, faint, etc., as in the following examples:

(9) The train has arrived. (10) All the ants died.
(11) The old man fainted.